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The targumim (singular: "targum", (ヘブライ語:תרגום)) were spoken paraphrases, explanations and expansions of the Jewish scriptures that a Rabbi would give in the common language of the listeners, which during the time of this practice was commonly, but not exclusively, Aramaic. This had become necessary near the end of the last century before the Christian era, as the common language was in transition and Hebrew was used for little more than schooling and worship. Eventually it became necessary to give explanations and paraphrases in the common language after the Hebrew scripture was read. The noun Targum is derived from early semitic quadriliteral root 'trgm', and the Akkadian term 'targummanu' refers to "translator, interpreter".〔Philip S. Alexander, (1992) "Targum, Targumim," in ''The Anchor Bible Dictionary'', ed. David Noel Freedman (New York: Doubleday), 6:320–31〕 It occurs in the Hebrew Bible in Ezra 4:18 "The document which you sent us has been read in translation (Aramaic—'mepares') before me".〔 Besides denoting the translations of the Bible, the term Targum also denote the oral rendering of Bible lections in synagogue,〔 while the translator of the Bible was simply called as hammeturgem (he who translates). Other than the meaning "translate" the verb Tirgem also means "to explain".〔 The word Targum refers to "translation" and argumentation or "explanation".〔 Writing down the targum was prohibited; nevertheless, some targumatic writings appeared as early as the middle of the first century CE.〔 These were not recognized as authoritative by the religious leaders at that time, however. Some subsequent Jewish traditions (beginning with the Babylonian Jews) did accept the written targumim as authoritative, and eventually this became a matter of debate. Today, only Jews from the republic of Yemen continue to use the targumim liturgically. As translations, the targumim largely reflect midrashic interpretation of the Tanakh from the time they were written, and are notable for eschewing anthropomorphisms in favor of allegorical readings. (Maimonides, for one, notes this often in ''The Guide for the Perplexed''.) This is true both for those ''targumim'' that are fairly literal, as well as for those that contain many midrashic expansions. In 1541, Elia Levita wrote and published ''Sefer Meturgeman,'' explaining all the Aramaic words found in the Targum.〔(Jewish Encyclopedia - Levita, Elijah )〕〔(Sefer Meturgeman )〕 An Aramaic Bible is also used in the Syriac Church (see Peshitta). In addition, ''targumim'' are used today as sources in text-critical editions of the Bible (BHS refers to them with the abbreviation 𝔗). ==Two major genres== The two most important targumim for liturgical purposes are: * Targum Onkelos on the Torah (Written Law) * Targum Jonathan ben Uzziel on the Nevi'im (Prophets) These two targumim are mentioned in the Babylonian Talmud as ''targum dilan'' ("our Targum"), giving them official status. In the synagogues of talmudic times, Targum Onkelos was read alternately with the Torah, verse by verse, and Targum Jonathan was read alternately with the selection from Nevi'im (i.e., the Haftarah). This custom continues today in Yemenite Jewish synagogues. The Yemenite Jews are the only Jewish community to continue the use of Targum as liturgical text, as well as to preserve a living tradition of pronunciation for the Aramaic of the targumim (according to a Babylonian dialect). Besides its public function in the synagogue, the Babylonian Talmud also mentions ''targum'' in the context of a personal study requirement: "A person should always review his portions of scripture along with the community, reading the scripture twice and the ''targum'' once" (Berakhot 8a–b). This too refers to Targum Onkelos on the public Torah reading and to Targum Jonathan on the haftarot from Nevi'im. Medieval biblical manuscripts of the Tiberian mesorah sometimes contain the Hebrew text interpolated, verse-by-verse, with the ''targumim''. This scribal practice has its roots both in the public reading of the Targum and in the private study requirement. The two "official" ''targumim'' are considered eastern (Babylonian). Nevertheless, scholars believe they too originated in the Land of Israel because of a strong linguistic substratum of western Aramaic. Though these ''targumim'' were later "easternized", the substratum belying their origins still remains. In post-talmudic times, when most Jewish communities had ceased speaking Aramaic, the public reading of Targum along with the Torah and Haftarah was abandoned in most communities. In Yemen, however, rather than ''abandoning'' the Aramaic targum during the public reading of the Torah, it was ''supplemented'' by a third version, namely the translation of the Torah into Arabic by Saadia Gaon (called the ''Tafsir'', though this Gaon was born in prominently Jewish at the time Sura Iraq, Babylon, moved to Egypt, arguably lead those two communities, and died in Jaffa ancestral Israel, he was not known to have ever been to the Jewish villages of Yemen. However his rulings on Mizrachi Jewish study had). Thus, in Yemen each verse was read three times. The private study requirement to review the Targum was never entirely relaxed, even when Jewish communities had largely ceased speaking Aramaic, and the Targum never ceased to be a major source for Jewish exegesis. For instance, it serves as a major source in the Torah commentary of Shlomo Yitzhaki, "Rashi", and therefor has always been the standard fare for Ashkenaz's (French, central European, and German) Jews. For these reasons, Jewish editions of the Tanakh which include commentaries still almost always print the Targum alongside the text, in all Jewish communities. Nevertheless, later halakhic authorities argued that the requirement to privately review the ''targum'' might also be met by reading a translation in the current vernacular in place of the official Targum, or else by studying an important commentary containing midrashic interpretation (especially that of Rashi). 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「Targum」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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